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Elton پروژهای چندزبانه برای گردآوری دانشنامهای جامع و با محتویات آزاد استPoetry
For the American journal, see Poetry (magazine).
Poetry is an art form in which language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. Poetry has a long history, predating literacy. The emphasis on the aesthetics of language and the deliberate use of features such as repetition, meter and rhyme are what commonly considered to distinguish poetry from prose, but debates over such distinctions still persist. Some modernists approach this problem of definition by defining poetry not as a literary genre within a set of genres, but as the manifestation of human imagination, the substance from which all creative acts derive.
Poetry often uses condensed forms and conventions to reinforce or expand the meaning of the underlying words or to invoke emotional or sensual experiences in the reader, as well as using devices such as assonance, alliteration and repetition to achieve musical or incantatory effects. Poetry's use of nuance and symbolism can make it difficult to interpret a poem or can leave a poem open to multiple interpretations.
Specific forms of poetry have become traditional within and across different cultures and genres, and often respond to the underlying characteristics of the language in which poetry is created. Each language's richness in rhyme and method of creating timing and tonal differences provides distinct opportunities for poets writing in that language. In today's world, poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms across cultures and languages.
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Nature of poetry
It is impossible to define poetry definitively, especially when one considers that poetry encompasses forms as different as epic poetry and haiku. Samuel Taylor Coleridge defined poetry as "The best words in the best order."[1]
Poetry is generally defined as distinct from prose, which is language meant to convey meaning in a less condensed way by using more logical or narrative structures. This does not imply poetry is illogical. Poetry is often created from the desire to escape the logical, as well as expressing feelings and other expressions in a tight, condensed manner. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability.[citation needed] Some modernists have suggested that the poet is one who creates and poetry is what the poet creates. The underlying concept of the poet as creator is not uncommon.
Basic elements
Sound
Prosody and meter
- Main article: Meter (poetry)
Prosody describes the meter and rhythm of a poem, and often refers to the scanning of poetic lines to show accents or emphases.
Methods of creating rhythm
- Main articles: Timing (linguistics) and tone (linguistics)
- See also: parallelism (rhetoric), inflection, intonation, and foot (prosody)
The precise units of poetic meter vary from language to language and between poetic traditions. Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by accents, syllables, or moras, depending on how meter is established. In reality, all languages use some combination of approaches. Japanese is a mora-timed language. Syllable-timed languages include Latin, Catalan, French and Spanish. English, Russian and, generally, German are stress-timed languages.
Even while languages may fall into one category for timing, verse within that language may show influences from other timing methods or from inflections. English verse is often accentual-syllabic, with timing established by a mix of syllables and stresses. Ancient Greek and Sanskrit are examples of languages with considerable inflection. For example, the inflected accents of the ancient Sanskrit Vedas were formalized in Vedic meter. In addition, some languages are tonal languages, which associate different tones with different otherwise identical words, and these tones can affect perceived rhythm and meter. Tonal languages include Chinese, Vietnamese, Norwegian, Lithuanian, and most subsaharan languages.
Meter generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern English verse the pattern of stresses primarily differentiates feet, so Modern English meter is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (alone or elided). In the classical languages, on the other hand, while the metrical units are similar, long or short vowel lengths rather than stresses define the meter. Old English poetry used sprung rhythm, a metrical pattern involving varied numbers of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line.
The chief device of Biblical poetry, including many of the psalms, as written in ancient Hebrew was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or call-and-response performance, where the call-and-response could also be reinforced by intonation. Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and sentances.
Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free grammar) which ensured a rhythm. In Chinese poetry, tones as well as stresses create rhythm. Classical Chinese poetics identifies four tones: the level tone, rising tone, falling tone, and entering tone. Note that other classifications may have as many as eight tones for Chinese and six for Vietnamese.
The often formal patterns of rhythm developed in Modern English verse no longer dominate contemporary English language poetry. In the case of free verse, the rhythm of lines is often organized into looser units of cadence. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams were three notable poets who rejected the idea that regular and primarily accentual meter was a critical element of poetry, claiming it was an unnatural imposition into poetry.[citation needed] Jeffers, for example, experiment with the use of sprung rhythm in contemporary verse.
Scanning rhythm
- Main articles: Scansion and Systems of scansion
Meters in Modern English verse, and in the classical Western poetic tradition on which it is founded, customarily are named by the characteristic foot and the number of feet per line. Thus, for example, blank verse is unrhymed "iambic pentameter," a meter composed of five feet per line in which the kind of feet called iambs predominate. The origin of this tradition of metrics is ancient Greek poetry from Homer, Pindar, Hesiod, Sappho, and the great tragedians of Athens.
Meter is often scanned based on the arrangement of "poetic feet" into lines. In English, each "foot" usually includes one syllable with a stress and one or two without a stress. In other languages, it may be a combination of the number of syllables and the length of the vowel that determines how the foot is parsed. For example, in Greek, one syllable with a long unstressed vowel may be treated as the equivalent of two syllables with short vowels.
As an example of how a line of meter is defined, in English language iambic pentameter, each line has five metrical feet, and each foot is an iamb, or an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. When a particular line is scanned, there may be variations upon the basic pattern of the meter; for example the first foot of English iambic pentameters is quite often inverted, meaning that the stress falls on the first syllable.
The generally accepted names for some of the most commonly used kinds of feet include:
- spondee — two stressed syllables together
- iamb — unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable
- trochee — one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable
- dactyl — one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables
- anapest — two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable
There is a wide range of additional types for different types of feet, right up to the choriamb, which is a four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable, used in some ancient Greek and Latin poetry as well as Modern English poetry. Languages which utilize vowel length or intonation rather than syllabic accents in determining meter often have similar concepts as the iamb and dactyl for combinations of long and short sounds.
Each of these types of feet has a feel, whether alone or in combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is likely the most natural form of rhythym in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable verse. The dactyl, on the other hand, almost gallops along. And, as every reader of The Night Before Christmas or Dr. Seuss should know, the anapest is perfect for a light-hearted, comic feel.
The number of metrical feet in a line is described in Latin, as follows:
- dimeter — two feet
- trimeter — three feet
- tetrameter — four feet
- pentameter — five feet
- hexameter — six feet
- heptameter — seven feet
- octameter — eight feet
Common rhythmic patterns
- Main article: Meter (poetry)
Signficant traditions and styles of poetry have developed using different meters, ranging from the Shakespearian iambic pentameter and the Homerian dactylic hexameter to the Anapestic tetrameter often used in nursery rhymes. However, a number of variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example, the stress in a foot may be inverted, a caesura (or pause) may be added (sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be given a feminine ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be highly irregular.
Some common rhythmic patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use them, include:
- Iambic pentameter (Christopher Marlowe, The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus; Edna St. Vincent Millay, Sonnets)
- Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Illiad; Virgil, Aenead, Ovid, "The Metamorphoses")
- Iambic tetrameter (Alexander Pope; Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress")
- Iambic heptameter (Robert Louis Stevenson)
- Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven")
- Anapestic tetrameter (Lewis Carroll, "The Hunting of the Snark"; Lord Byron, Don Juan)
- Trochaic tetrameter (many hymns)
Rhyme, alliteration and assonance
Rhyme, Alliteration and Assonance may be used as the basis of a poetic form or may be used to reinforce a rhythmic pattern.
In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poems often use rhyme, consisting of identical ("hard rhyme") or similar ("soft rhyme") sounds placed at the end of lines. Rhyme is a defining element in a number of common poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of rhyme is not universal. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme.
Rhyme did not enter European poetry until the High Middle Ages, when adopted from the Arabic language. Arabic language poets have always used rhyme extensively, most notably in their long, rhyming qasidas.
Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures, so that Italian, for example, has a rich rhyming structuring where it is possible to maintain a limited set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem (primarily because word endings follow regular forms), while English, with irregular word endings adopted from many other languages, is less rich in rhyme. The richness of rhyming structures in a language plays a significant role in determining what poetic forms are commonly used.
Alliteration and Assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic, Norse and English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early Germanic poetry and the rhyme schemes of Modern European poetry include meter as a key part of their structure, which determines when the listener expects instances of rhyme, alliteration or assonance to occur. Alliteration is particularly useful in languages with less rich rhyming structures, and is often used in conjunction with rhyme. Assonance, where the use of similar verb sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, but goes back to the Homeric epic.
Sound plays a more subtle role in free verse poetry by creating pleasing, varied patterns and emphasizing or illustrating semantic elements of the poem. Alliteration, assonance, consonance, dissonance and internal rhyme are among the ways poets use sound. Euphony refers to the musical, flowing quality of words arranged in an aesthetically pleasing way.
Rhyming schemes (including examples)
- Main article: rhyme scheme
A variety of specific rhyming patterns have been used in poetry. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across several languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes.
Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that corresponde to sets of rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is often is common, for example, to the rubaiyat form. Similarly, an "a-b-b-a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed rhyme") is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet.
Some types of more complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the "a-b-c" convention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima discussed below. The types and use of differing rhyming schemes is discussed further in the main article.
Ottava rima
- Main article: Ottava rima
The Ottava Rima is a poem with a stanza of eight lines with an alternating a - b rhyming scheme for the first six lines followed by a closing couplet first used by Boccaccio. This rhyming scheme was developed for heroic epics but has also been used for mock-heroic poetry.
Dante and terza rima
- Main article: Terza rima
Dante's The Divine Comedy is written in Terza rima, where each stanza has three lines, with the first and third rhyming, and the second line rhyming with the first and third lines of the next stanza (so, a-b-a / b-c-b / c-d-c, etc.) in a chain rhyme. The Terza Rima provides a flowing, progressive sense to the poem, and used skillfully it can evoke a sense of motion, forward or backward. Terza rima is appropriately used in lengthy poems in languages with rich rhyming schemes (such as Italian, with its many common word endings).[2]
Basic units of poetic form
Poetry usually depends less on sentences and particularly paragraphs than prose. The major structural elements of poetry generally are the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stazas or lines such as cantos, though the broader visual presentation of words and calligraphy can also be utilized. The basic units of poetic form are often combined into larger structures, called poetic forms, such as the sonnet.
Lines
The relationship of lines of a poem to other units of sense, such as coherent phrases or sentances, can create dynamic tension in a poem. For example, in the well-known line from William Shakespeare's Hamlet, the first line, "To be, or not to be: that is the question", has two clear and coherent phrases reinforcing the rhythm.
However, in the same speech, another line mid-phrase or sentence in order to create expectation, both increasing tension and pushing the reader forward:
-
- Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
- The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune.
- Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer
This technique is called enjambment.
Lines are combined in different ways. Combinations may be in couplets, or combinations of two lines, which may be related to each other by rhyme or rhythm, so, for example, a couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held together by a common meter alone. Combinations also may be in triplets, or sets of three lines.
Sets of lines are often separated into stanzas, described below, which often have larger and more complex relationships among the lines.
Stanzas and verse paragraphs
- Main article: stanza
Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, or sets of related lines. These are also commonly referred to in Latin, so a collection of four lines is a quatrain, six lines is a sestet and a collection of eight lines is an octet. Two lines is a couplet (or distich), three lines is a tercet, and five lines is a quintain (or cinquain).
Other poems may be organized into a verse paragraph, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph form. Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were used.
In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one stanza determines the structural elements of the next stanza. Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ghazal and the villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas, and the terza rima rhyming scheme, where an unrhymed line in the middle line of a preceeding triplet is rhymed to the first and third lines of the next succeeding triplet.
Stanzas often are used to separate out different thematic parts of a poem. For example, thestrophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form discussed below are often separated into one or more stanzas. In such cases, or where structures are meant to be highly formal, a stanza will usually form a complete thought, consisting of full sentances and cohesive thoughts.
In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or three alliterations, the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a trochee. The arrangement of dróttkvætts followed far less rigid rules than the construction of the individual dróttkvætts.
Visual presentation
Even before the advent of printing, the appearance of written poetry often added significant meaning or depth. Acrostic poems included clues or meanings in the letters beginning lines or in other specific places in a poem. In Arabic, Hebrew, and Chinese poetry, the presentation of the poems in fine calligraphy has always been an important part of the overall artistic and poetic effect.
With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the visual presentation of their work. As a result, the use of these formal elements, and of the white space they help create, became an important part of the poet's toolbox. Modernist poetry tends to take this to an extreme, with the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the page forming an integral part of the poem's composition. In its most extreme form, this leads to concrete poetry.
Poetic diction
- Main article: Poetic diction
Poetic diction describes the manner in which language is used. It refers not only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with sound and form. Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic dictions, to the point where separate grammars and dialects are used specifically for poetry.
Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as well as different tones of voice, such as irony. Aristotle wrote in his Poetics that "the greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor". Since the rise of Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that deemphasizes rhetorical devices, attempting the direct presentation of things and experiences and the exploration of tone. On the other hand, Surrealists have pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis.
Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were especially prominent in the west during the Middle Ages. Rather than being fully alleghorical, a poem may contain symbols or allusion that deepens the meaning or impact of its words without constructing a full allegory.
A strong element of Poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and in haiku. Vivid images are often endowed with symbolism as well.
Many poetic dictions will use repetitive phrases for effective, whether short (Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn") or long, such as refrains repeated at the end of each stanza. Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem, as in many odes, or can be laced with irony as the context of the words change. For example, in Mark Antony's famous eulogy to Julius Caesar in Shakespeare, Anthony's reptition of the words "for Brutus is an honorable man" move from a tone that is sincere to one that exudes irony.
Common poetic forms
Historically, very specific and formalized poetic forms have been developed by many cultures. In more developed, closed forms, rhyming scheme, meter and other elements of a poem are based on sets of rules, ranging from the relatively loose rules that govern the construction of an elegy to the highly formalized structure of the ghazal or villanelle.
Below are described some common forms of poetry widely used across several languages. Additional forms of poetry can be found in the discussions of poetry of particular cultures or periods or in the glossary.
Sonnets
- Main article: Sonnet
Among the most common forms of poetry through the ages is the sonnet, which, by the thirteenth century, generally signified a poem of fourteen lines following a strict rhyme scheme and logical structure. The conventions associated with the sonnet have changed during its history,and so there are several different sonnet forms. Traditionally, English poets usually use iambic pentameter when writing sonnets. In the Romance languages, hendecasyllable and Alexandrines are the most widely used meters. Forms of sonnet include the Petrarchan sonnet, which has an initial octave composed of two quatrains each with an a-b-b-a rhyming pattern and a closing sestet using various rhyming structures. The Petrarchan sonnet utilizes a volta, or change in subject or viewpoint, between the octave and the sestet, which leads to a resolution in the sestet. The Spenserian sonnet is a sonnet in iambic pentameter composed of three quatrains and a final rhyming couplet in iambic pentameter with the rhyme scheme a-b-a-b b-c-b-c c-d-c-d e-e, while the Shakespearean sonnet is similar in structure but utilizes an a-b-a-b c-d-c-d e-f-e-f g-g rhyming pattern.
Jintishi
- Main article: Shi (poetry)#Jintishi
Jintishi, (近體詩), is based on a series of set tonal patterns using the four tones of classical Chinese poetry in each couplet: the level, rising, falling and entering tones. The basic form of Jintishi has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the second and third couplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting content but the same grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often have a rich poetic diction, full of allusion, and can have a wide range of subject, including history and politics. One of the masters of Jintishi was Du Fu, who wrote during the Tang Dynasty in the 8th century. There are several variations on this basic form of Jintishi.
Villanelle
- Main article: Villanelle
The Villanelle is a nineteen line poem made up of five triplets with a closing quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by the two refrains. The remaining lines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme. The repetition of the alternating refrains lends a solemnity to many villanelles. The villanelle is a traditional French and Italian form going back to the Renaissance, but has been adapted to the English language since the late nineteenth century by poets such as Dylan Thomas and W.H. Auden.
Tanka
- Main article: Waka
The Tanka is a form of Japanese waka poetry with five lines structured in a 5-7-5 7-7 patterns. The 5-7-5 phrase (the "upper phrase") and the 7-7 phrase (the "lower phrase") generally show a shift in tone and subject matter. Tanka were written as early as the Nara period by such poets as Kakinomoto no Hitomaro.
Ode
- Main article: Ode
Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, including Horace and Pindar, and have been inherited by many of the cultures influenced by the Greeks. The Ode generally has three parts: a strophe and an antistrophe with similar rhyme schemes and metrical structures, and an epode with a different scheme and structure. Odes have a formal poetic diction, generally dealing with a serious subject. The strophe and antistrophe generally look at the subject from different, often conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to either view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended to be recited or sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the second the antistrophe, and both together the epode. Over time, differing forms for Odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian Ode. Among the forms of poetry influenced by the Ode are the qasida in Arabic and Persian poetry.
Ghazal
- Main article: Ghazal
The ghazal (arabic: غزل) is a form of poetry common in Urdu, Arabic, and Persian poetry, among others. The ghazal has from five to fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain (which can be of only a few words). Each couplet forms a complete thought and stands alone, and the overall ghazal generally reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity. The last couplet generally includes a signature of the author. Like other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have been developed.
History and contexts of poetry
- Main article: History of poetry
The history of poetry as an art form predates literacy, and early oral poetry may have used rhyme, rhythm, and other formal systems as mnemonic devices. Many of the scriptures currently held to be sacred by contemporary religious traditions, including the Hebrew Bible and the Vedic epics may have been composed as poetry to aid memorization and help guarantee the accuracy of oral transmission in pre-literate societies. As a result many of the poems surviving from the ancient world are a form of recorded cultural information about the people of the past, and their poems are prayers or stories about religious subject matter, histories about their politics and wars, and the important organizing myths of their societies.
Poetry in some form has been part of every literate culture. Poetic fragments are found on early monoliths such as rune stones and stele. Among the earliest poems recorded are the poems of Gilgamesh, from the third millenia B.C. in Sumeria, which were written in cuneiform script on stone and, later, papyrus.[3] In many cases, it is difficult to be certain of the meter, rhyme or poetic diction of early poetry, as pronounciations and key elements of language structure can remain uncertain.
Poetry is used in many contexts. For example, poetry is employed as to record historical events in historical epics, such as Gilgamesh or Ferdowsi's Shahnama; for liturgical purposes in hymns, psalms, and the Qur'an, suras and hadiths; for mourning in elegies; associated with music from lyric poetry to Gregorian chants to rap; as formal or diplomatic speech in much Arabic poetry or as political invective in libel poetry or many epigrams; and to entertain children in nursery rhymes. From the somber subjects of odes and elegies to the various forms of love poetry such as the sonnet or ghazal to nonsense rhymes, every aspect of human existence inspires poetry.
Notes
References
- Władysław Tatarkiewicz, "The Concept of Poetry," translated by Christopher Kasparek, Dialectics and Humanism: the Polish Philosophical Quarterly, vol. II, no. 2 (spring 1975), pp. 13-24.
- Alex Preminger, Terry V.F. Brogan and Frank J. Warnke (Eds): The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics (Princeton University Press; 3rd edition, 1993). ISBN 0691021236
See also
External links
Reference material and resources
- Glossary of Poetic Terms, from Bob's Byway
- Poetry Definitions from poetrymagic.co.uk
- Library of Congress Poetry Resources
- Poetry and Science Education
- Favorite Poem Project
- Wired for Books
Poetry collections and anthologies
- Poetry eTexts at Project Gutenberg
- The HyperTexts has poetry by the Masters, contemporary poets, Esoterica, essays, and more
- Representative Poetry Online
- Bartleby Verse
- AfroPoets Famous Black Writers
- Poets' Corner - Over 6,000 poems by over 750 poets
Poetry organizations and publications
- Academy of American Poets
- Poets & Writers: American poetry and writing magazine
- Canadian Poetry Association
- Poetry Magazine
- American Poetry Review
- Contemporary Poetry Review
- The New Formalist
- Miami Poetry Review